Liability for Economic Loss Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Liability for Economic Loss - Essay Example Bar, U. Drobnig & Guido Alpa. â€Å"The Interaction of Contract Law and Tort and Property Law in Europe: A Comparative Study.† (2004). Rome: Guido Alpa 12 M. Schneier & American Bar Association. â€Å"Construction accident law: A comprehensive guide to legal liability and insurance claim.† (1999) Boston: American Bar Association 12 Shanley â€Å"Comparative negligence and jury behavior† New York: Rand Corp 12 L. McDougal, R. Felix & R. Whitten. â€Å"American Conflicts Law: cases and material† (2004) New Jersey: LexisNexis 12 Cullen I. & NSW Young Lawyers. â€Å"Civil Liability Act 2002† (2002) New York: NSW Young Lawyers 13 M. Drury. â€Å" Clinical Negligence in General Practice† (2000). Houston: Radcliffe Publishing 13 Todd A. DeMitchell â€Å"Negligence: What Principals Need to Know about Avoiding Liability† (2007). Washington: Rowman & Littlefield Education 13 Arthur Martin C. â€Å"Negligence: Instruction Paper† (2010). Ne w York: BiblioBazaar 13 Bob P. â€Å"Professional Negligence in Construction† (2003). New York: Taylor & Francis 13 Schrage E. J. H. â€Å"Negligence: The Comparative Legal History of the Law of Torts† (2001) Detroit: Duncker & Humblot 13 Lewis K., Linda D. â€Å"Negligence† (1995) Texas: Carswell 13 Tony K. â€Å"Negligence: Origins† (2009). ... arises pertaining to failure by a party to â€Å"exercise reasonable care and skill†1 Further guidelines stipulate that harm is any kind of harm laid upon damage of property or any harm that is inflicted upon damage of property. Therefore, liability for economic loss seeks to make judgment on the party that is to endure losses occurring from the loss suffered. Tort law assigns the liability for economic loss to either parties of the case, in accordance to the law guidelines and according to the damage suffered by either party. Cases arising from economic losses are far-reaching and go beyond a certain limit, regarding many entailments. A scenario example would arise due to a contractual obligation, a construction concern or negligence in meeting the requirements of guide. Construction defects arising from defective installation or derisory material will normally amount to breach of contract, and the economic liability will lie towards the contractor. Tort law however makes exc eptions for certain cases arising from negligence by the owner of the property to fulfill their obligation as a result of negligence. If the contractor made it known that the materials used by the contractor were faulty and that the owner submitted to the allegations, then the liability for economic loss will be awarded to the owner. Another attribute of the tort law is that a contractor may suffer liability for economic loss if the contractor makes appropriations limiting certain actions allocated by the contractual agreement. Cases relating to liability for economic loss are dynamic. They rely on a set of tort law, common law and case law. Case law answers the question of how it is applied mostly. Cases arising from prior disagreements suit a large part of the case law aspects regarding liability

Criminal Profiling of Satanic Followers Research Paper

Criminal Profiling of Satanic Followers - Research Paper Example There are reported several cases of a variety of crimes, inspired by the Black Pope’s Satanic teaching. A classic example of a ritualistic crime committed by self-styled Satanists is the story of La Vey’s disciples, ordered by their leader to perform high-profile murders (Kennedy, 2006). Another famous story involving satanic crime is the case of Richard Ramirez, â€Å"The Night Stalker†, who raped, tortured, and murdered several victims while forcing them to declare their love for Satan (Perlmutter, 2001). However, from the law enforcement perspective, it is not easy to classify a criminal activity as a satanic crime and, thus, reduce an investigation only to the suspects who claim to be Satanists (Lanning, 89). To start with, while there are several criteria that can help law enforcement officers to classify a crime as satanic, none of them is reliable enough to clearly define such a criminal activity. To start with, while some argue that the presence of certai n symbols, such as inverted crosses, pentagrams, or 666 makes a crime satanic, from the law enforcement perspective â€Å" unless there is a legal-valid perspective for doing so, police have no authority to seize any satanic or occult paraphernalia they might see during the search (Lewis, 2001). The symbols or signs have no any significance for the investigation unless they prove a criminal activity. If a victim includes a Satanic symbol when describing the instruments or a location of the crime, then the symbol can serve as an evidence.... The symbols or signs have no any significance for the investigation unless they prove a criminal activity. If a victim includes a Satanic symbol when describing the instruments or a location of the crime, then the symbol can serve as an evidence. However, many cases reveal that despite the presence of certain symbols in the possession of the offender, the crime had no Satanic relation. Furthermore, signs, symbols, and rituals cannot always be interpreted clearly as their meaning may change over time, place, and circumstance (Lewis, 2001). As an example, a swastika can represent either prosperity and good fortune, or Nazism and anti-Semitism, or – currently – hate, paranoia, and adolescent defiance. Especially in cases involving dabblers, teenagers, and other self-styled Satanists, who give the symbols their own meaning, the analysis of symbols and signs may only have a limited application. There are also cases of offenders leaving satanic symbols on the crime scene deli berately in order to make the crime look â€Å"satanic† and, thus, confuse the investigators. Thus, when law enforcement officers investigate alleged satanic crimes, they need to be objective fact finders (Lanning, 89). While law enforcement officers need to be trained to recognize the possible investigative significance of satanic symbols, rituals, and paraphernalia, it is impossible for one person to know the meaning of all the symbols and rituals of every spiritual belief system. Therefore, symbols cannot be used to clearly classify a law enforcement problem as a satanic activity (Kennedy, 2006). Following the concern about â€Å"unexplained† mutilations and murders of animals in the late

Hydrothermally Green Synthesized Ginger Properties

Hydrothermally Green Synthesized Ginger Properties Hydrothermally green synthesized ginger derived carbon nanodots showing antioxidant, catalytic reducing and anticancer properties* Abstract Carbogenic carbon nanodots containing Curcuminoids and 6-gingerol layers with bulk of resonating non bonded electrons were synthesized using simple and green hydrothermal method from natural herb Ginger. As synthesized C nanodots were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, IR, DLS, and TEM analysis. The antioxidant, catalytic reducing and anticancer properties of C dots were studied using ex vivo KMnO4 reduction assay, catalytic 4-nitrophenol reduction test, and in vitro MTT assay on MCF-7 cell line respectively. These carbogenic carbon nanoparticles shown quantum particle size of 4 nm. The green synthesized C dots shown excellent in vitro biological anti oxidant and anticancer properties along with reducing nature. This study exhibited the novelty of these green synthesized bioactive carbon nanodots for tagging and coating of bioactive materials for drug vectorization, biodetection, biocompatible cell targeting and biological applications. Keywords: Ginger Carbon Dots, Antioxidant, Reducing, Anticancer, MCF-7 cell line. 1. Introduction Carbon nanodots (CNDs), as a new member of carbon nanomaterial family, have aroused great interest because of their outstanding water solubility, high sensitivity and selectivity to target analytes, low toxicity, favorable biocompatibility, and excellent photo stability1-3. Lots of methods for the production of CNDs have been reported such as hydrothermal and solvothermal technology and needs simple equipments. Due to their excellent fluorescence, CNDs have made impressive strides in sensitivity and selectivity to a diverse array of salt ions, organic/biological molecules and target gases4-8. The development of CDs as nano probes is still in its infancy, but continued progress may lead to their integration into environmental and biological applications. CNDs mainly have two major categories as carbogenic and graphitic carbon nanodots. These carbon nanomaterials can be derived from natural resources, biomolecules as carbohydrates, proteins using hydrothermal, solvothermal and microwav e synthetic methods. As synthesized polymeric layer structured CNDs contain N, S, O hetero atoms with Carbon as main elemental composition with SP2 hybridization and along with conjugation and plenty of mobile electrons. Carbogenic carbon quantum dots or CNDs can be derived from natural herbs and wastes and contain mainly SP2 hybridization and conjugation of Carbon atoms and or with S, N, O atoms. CNDs are conjugated systems which have sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbons atoms with plenty of oxygen containing groups. CNDs obtained by the hydrothermal treatment reaction contains ionization, condensation, polymerization, and carbonization by bottom-up method. Such carbon dots may contain plenty of mobile electrons in polymeric layers limiting in size of 2 to 8 nm. and can show excellent non blinking photoluminescence and UV-VIS absorption of radiations9-17. So these CNDs can be used for coating biomaterials, nano probes, nano vectors for bio applications18-22. Ginger is one of the most wid ely used herb condiments in the world and is used as a traditional medicinal herb in eastern countries like India, China, due to its antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties. Curcumin, a hydrophobic polyphenol [(1E,6E)-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) hepta-1,6-dienne-3,5-dione], is a yellow ingredient of ginger, which exhibits many biological activities such as antibacterial, anticancer, and hepatoprotective activities. Curcumin can inhibit the growth of the human cancer cells and change the cell-surface morphology, and trigger pro-apoptotic factor (e.g., mitochondrial damage and caspase activation) to promote cell apoptosis, with low toxicity to other cells. In addition to curcumin, 6-gingerol (a natural analog of curcumin; [5-hydroxy-1-(40-hydroxy-30-methoxyphenyl)3-decanone]) is another abundant constituent of ginger, which exhibits antimetastatic and anti-invasive pharmacological activities on cancer cells. Such active ingredients of ginger can be ac commodated in quantum dot polymeric level by carbonization of ginger to CNDs for use of biological activities and applications. Here in this paper we have synthesized carbogenic carbon nanodots by use of natural herb ginger. After physicochemical characterization of these CNDs, their reducing nature, catalytic activities, biocompatibility, anti oxidant nature and anticancer potential have been checked by various biological screening tests. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials All the chemicals used for synthesis of CNDs and their biological screening such as NaOH, KMnO4, 2,4-DNP, NaBH4, 4-Nitrophenol, Vitamin-C, 5-Fluorouracil, MTT reagent were of A. R. grade from S. D. fine chem. and Merck ltd. Cell culture medium DMEM, 10% fetal bovine serum, Human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) were procured from NCCS center, Pune, India. The double distilled water from Millipore system was used throughout the synthesis and testing. 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Hydrothermal synthesis of Carbogenic CNDs from ginger The carbogenic carbon nanoparticles (CNDs) were synthesized using hydrothermal green method with some modification from natural herb ginger. In brief fresh tenders of rhizomes of ginger were purchased from local market and washed with boiled water. Then the surface cover of tenders peeled and cut into small pieces. These pieces were crushed by mortar and pestle and aqueous extract was taken in appropriate volume(25 ml.) in a beaker. 0.01 M NaOH (10 Ml.) and 15 ml. double distilled water was added in to beaker and basic extract was carbonized at 200oC for 3 Hours. over hot plate under air atmosphere. As formed carbon residue was diluted with double distilled water to 100 ml. and filtered through filter paper no.1. then finally the filtrate was dialyzed through dialysis membrane with porosity 2 nm. for 8 hrs. with stirring. The transparent brown liquid containing carbon nano dots stored in refrigerator for further use. 2.2.2. Structural and morphological characterization of CNDs The structure, hybridization, morphology, particle size and types of atoms of CNDs were confirmed on the basis of physicochemical characterization on the basis of UV-VIS and IR spectral analysis, TEM, DLS analysis. Systronic double beam spectrometer was used for UV-VIS spectral analysis of CNDs with solution conc. of 10  µg./ml. in water prepared after drying CNDs suspension at 100oC with water as blank. TEM image and DLS scattering for particle size of CNDs determined with original CNDs aqueous suspension. IR spectra of CNDs determined using KBr pallet method on Perkin Elmer series spectrometer. 2.2.3. Reducing catalytic activity of CNDs The reducing nature of CNDs along with catalytic activity was determined by reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol in presence of CNDs with sodium borohydride (NaBH4). The role of CNDs on reduction rate was studied with UV-VIS spectrophotometry. The time required for reduction in presence of CNDs studied by wavelength scan spectra of 4-nitrophenol reduction to 4-aminophenol. Briefly, 2 ml. of 4-nitrophenol(0.01M) and 1 ml. NaBH4 (0.01M) with 1ml. water taken in cuvette and 1 ml. of 10  µg./ml. of CNDs added to this mixture. Suddenly UV-VIS spectra was recorded from 2 minutes after reaction up to 12 minutes. The online real time UV-VIS scan was performed until completion of reaction of 4-NP to 4-AP. 2.2.4. Antioxidant property of CNDs by ex vivo KMnO4 assay The antioxidant activity of CNDs were tested by ex vivo KMnO4 reduction assay with Vitamin-C as standard control antioxidant drug by UV-VIS spectrometer optometric absorbance measurement. Briefly 5 ml. 0.01M KMnO4 reacted with 5 ml. 1mg./ml. CNDs in a hard glass test tube sealed at open end with cotton and incubated in dark for 30 min. at 37oC in CO2 environment of incubator. The absorbance of bare potassium permanganate solution was determined before and after incubation with antioxidant material as OD1 and OD2 respectively. Same test was performed for CNDs and Std. Vitamin-C as control for various concentrations of 0.12, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 mg./ ml. finally the percent antioxidant activity of material determined by using ex vivo assay formula as, Percent antioxidant activity = OD1-OD2 / OD1 X 100 % 2.2.5. Anticancer potential of CNDs by in vitro MTT assay on MCF-7 Cancer cell cultures – MCF-7 (human breast cancer) cell lines were purchased from NCCS, Pune, India. All cell lines were grown and maintained in suitable (DMEM -media and were grown and subcultured in medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum,1% L-Glutamine.1% penicillin streptomycin antibiotic solution. All cells were trypsinated using trypsin-EDTA solution and seeded in 96- well plates. The newly synthesized CNDs were evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxic effects against MCF-7 (Breast cancer cell line), by the standard MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay using 5-FU (5-Fluorouracil) drug as a positive control in aqueous form. The MCF cell line was maintained in DMEM medium supplemented with 10 % fetal bovine serum. The cells were plated at a density of 1 Ãâ€" 105 cells per well in a 96-well plates, and cultured for 24 h at 37 °C. The cells were subsequently exposed to 10  µM CNDs.The plates were incubated for 48 h, and cell proliferation was measured by adding 10 µL of MTT (thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide) dye (5 mg ml-1 in phosphate-buffered saline) per well. The plates were incubated for a further 4 h at 37  °C in a humidified chamber containing 5% CO2. Formazan crystals formed due to reduction of dye by viable cells in each well were dissolved in 200  µl DMSO, and absorbance was read at 490 nm. The results were compared with the standard drug inhibitors 5 fluorouracil. (10 µg/Ml.) Lastly percent cytotoxicity of CNDs was calculated by using following formula. Percent Cytotoxicity = Reading of control Reading of treated cells / Reading of control X 100 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Morphological and structural characterization of carbon nanodots 3.1.1. IR analysis The IR spectra of CNDs shown peaks in both the regions of functional and fingerprint signals. The functional group signal region of spectra exhibited the presence of aromatic and conjugated –OH groups, diketone, aromatic conjugated system, while fingerprint region of spectral signals shown presence of aromatic –OCH3 aromatic-H, -CH2 stretch, and presence of sp2 hybridized carbon groups. The IR signal frequency at 3486 cm-1 is due to the aromatic –OH groups. Peak at 2930 cm-1 show presence of conjugated diketonic group. Peak at 1644 cm-1 may be attributed to aromatic -OCH3. All other peaks of spectra in fingerprint area may be due to presence of conjugated –CH groups, aromatic-H, -C=O etc. (Fig.1). hence all these evidences prove the presence of curcuminoids and 6-gingerol layer of CNDs. Hence these CNDs are carbogenic carbon nanoparticles containing sp2 hybridized conjugated carbon atoms containing plenty of Pi and non bonded electrons with chain sizes in nanometer range. 3.1.2. UV-VIS absorption spectra of CNDs The UV-VIS spectra of CNDs shows two absorption peaks at 210 nm. and 315 nm. and with long tailing in visible spectra. These observations clearly indicates the presence of Pi and non bonding electrons in carbogenic CNDs. The absorption peak at 210 nm. shows n to Ï€* transition and peak at 315 is due to Ï€ to Ï€* transition and electron radiation relaxation (Fig. 2). Hence these spectral analysis indicates the presence of conjugated carbon system with n and Ï€ electrons probably due to curcuminoids and 6-gingerol in CNDs with SP2 hybridized carbon in conjugation. So CNDs could contain aromatic conjugated natural carotenoid like diketonic molecular systems of these active ingredients of ginger. The DLS scattering spectra of CNDs reveal that, the average particle size of the carbon nanoparticles is 4 nm. which matched with the TEM image of CNDs and with size of these carbon quantum nanoparticles. The sizes of CNDs varies from 2 to 12 nm. (Fig. 3), but maximum CNDs shows size between 2 to 6 nm. hence these are quantum dot carbon nanoparticles with abundance of mobile electrons responsible for light scattering in DLS and electron scattering in TEM. The TEM image of CNDs proved that there is some aggregation showing amorphous nature and circular morphology of CNDs material. 3.2.1. Reducing catalytic activity of CNDs by reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP The reducing and catalytic nature of CNDs tested by reduction of 4-nitrophenol(4-NP) to 4-aminophenol(4-AP) in presence of NaBH4 by absorbance measurement with time lag of reaction. The initial absorption spectra of 4-NP and peak at 330 nm. vanished after reduction by CNDs in presence of NaBH4 as hydrogen source and CNDs as catalyst. After 12 min. 4-NP is totally converted to 4-AP showing new absorption spectra with peak at 460 nm. the catalytic reduction cycle of reaction completes after 12 min. UV-VIS real time online reaction wavelength scan performed from 2 min. to 12 min. until completion of reaction in cuvette. The formation of 4-AP take place with shifting and dampening of peak of 4-NP and formation of new peak of 4-AP in UV-VIS wavelength scan spectra (Fig.4). Very good antioxidant activity is shown by CNDs derived from natural herb ginger compared with Vitamin-C by ex- vivo KMnO4 assay. The antioxidant activity determined for 0.12, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 mg./ml. concentrations of CNDs and Vit.-C as standard control is represented in Fig.5. The CNDs shows higher antioxidant activity than Vit.-C which increases with increase in concentration of drug. The color of KMnO4 fade after treatment of material and incubation in biological environment conditions, which elaborates the reducing as well as antioxidant nature of control Vit.-C and material CNDs. EC50 minimal inhibition concentration value or half reducing antioxidant activity of Vit.-C and CNDs determined by triplicate absorbance measurement are 0.62 and 0.48 mg./ml. respectively. So CNDs are better option for antioxidant material than Vit.-C for bio applications with minimum concentration for high antioxidant activity. 3.2.3. Anticancer potential of CNDs by in vitro MTT assay on MCF-7 cell line MTT assay performed on MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line for anticancer potential of CNDs with 5-Fluorouracil as control drug shows moderate to good activity against these cells. As CNDs are reducing, antioxidant and contain free mobile electrons they can inhibit growth of MCF-7 by generation of ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) at acidic pH inside cells. The cell viability of MCF-7 decreased by CNDs up to 64 % at concentration of 5  µg./ml. in sterile phosphate buffer saline with pH=7.4 and up to 78 % at 10  µg./ml. compared with 5-FU to 15 % at 5  µg./ml. and 19 % at 10  µg./ml. respectively. So the EC50 = 5  µg,/ml. shown by CNDs prove that a good candidate drug for anticancer application on selected cell lines without toxicity on normal cells. 4. Conclusion The green, hydrothermal and cost effective synthesis of carbon nano dots from natural herb ginger has been reported in this paper. The synthesized CNDs had shown presence of layers of curcuminoids and 6-gingerol as drug ingredients from ginger with conjugation and plenty of mobile electrons. These CNDs had explored reducing catalytic, antioxidant, anticancer activities. Hence these carbogenic CNDs with 4 nm. mean quantum size exhibited important biological activities. So these water soluble CNDs derived from natural herb and in basic medium by carbonization process can be used as tagging and coating material on bioactive nanomaterials for cell vectorization or probing and for biocatalytic, antioxidant and anticancer applications. Overall the CNDs derived from natural herb ginger exhibit characteristics of: better reducing, catalytic, antioxidant and anticancer activities good water and phosphate buffer solubility hence these are bioavailable drug candidate good stability and low toxicity on normal cells and moderate cytotoxicity on cancer cells quantum dot size and presence of curcuminoids and or 6-gingerol natural multiactive drugs So the CNDs can be better options for toxic quantum dot materials as CdS, and CdSe in biological applications.

Mending the Relationship of Two Brothers in James Baldwins Sonnys Blu

Mending the Relationship of Two Brothers in James Baldwin's Sonny's Blues According to Liukkonen, James Baldwin is well known for his "novels on sexual and personal identity, and sharp essays on civil-rights struggle in the United States." "Sonny's Blues" is no exception to this. The story takes place in Harlem, New York in the 1950's and tells of the relationship between two brothers. The older brother, who is the narrator and a participant in the novel, remains unnamed throughout the story. The novel is about the struggles, failures and successes of these two African American brothers growing up in the intercity as a minority. The encounters that the narrator and his brother, Sonny, have throughout the story exemplify Baldwin's theme of personal accountability and ethical criticism. The older brother, the narrator, finds himself struggling at the beginning of the story. While riding the subway, he reads in the paper that Sonny has been arrested for possession of drugs. During his day of teaching, he reflects on prior years with Sonny and their past adventures as young boys. He remembers Sonny's "wonderfully direct brown eyes, and great gentleness and privacy." The narrator sees his brother as a good boy, not "hard or evil or disrespectful." He wonders how many of his algebra students are similar to Sonny in appearance and personality along with his drug habits. This comparison allows the older brother to conclude that Sonny was probably not arrested on his initial use of drugs. It also allows the narrator is see that Sonny may be like most of the other young boys in Harlem. As the narrator makes his way to the courtyard heading home from school, a "friend" of Sonny's, another drug-user, approaches him. The narrator ... ...the narrator and all people a way of finding meaning in their pains and joys. The two brothers again can live in brotherhood and harmony. Works Cited Finnessy, Patrick. James Baldwin. 2004. Biographies. University of Illinois at Chicago: Office of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Heterosexual Concerns (OGLBTC). 26 Apr 2004. James Baldwin. 2004. American Masters. PBS. 23 Apr 2004. Liukkonen, Petri. James (Arthur) Baldwin Books and Authors. 2002. Amazon.com. 20 April 2004. Magill, Frank N. ed. Masterplots II: Short Story Series. Vol 5 Pru-Ter. California: Salem Press, Inc. 1986. Sipiora, Phillip. Reading and Writing about Literature. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002. Wilson, Kathleen, ed. Short Stories for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context and Criticism on Commonly Studied Short Stories. Vol 2. Michigan: Gale Research, 1997.

A description of a tranditional ELT classroom in Korea

It’s a Friday afternoon. After he looks through the schedule to find out which class he has to instruct next, Mr Jo is checking up the word quiz papers which will be used to see whether they have reviewed the words that they learned from the last English class.Now he enters the door of the classroom, and tells the students running, chatting, sitting on the desk to prepare for the class. After settling down the class, he begins to check if everyone is present. And the teacher is giving out the word quiz papers and telling them to write down on the sheet the words that he will say. Right after speaking ten words he wants to check up, he has students swtch their papers, and score them, Next, the teacher gathers up all the papers and puts them aside, and he is moving to the next segment.Mr. Jo points out a student and asks her what grammar points she was instructed in the last class. Unfortuantely she doesn’t remember what she learned, so Mr. Jo warns her that if she doesnà ¢â‚¬â„¢t reivew what she learns next time, she will have a penalty for that.For students to refresh their memory of what they have learned, he starts to go over the points again. Finishing the review, he has the students open up the textbook and begins to cover the reading passage. The teacher reads all the sentences and translates them one by one as usual. Whenever he runs into a grammar point that might be new to the students, the teacher explains it in Korean, and encourages them to take notes on their textbook.After he goes through all the passage, the teacher gives them some homework to write all the sentences and to translate them to Korean on the notebook, and also asks the students to solve all the questions on the grammar and reading sections.Getting back to his desk, he piles up the quiz sheets and starts to go through the number that each student has scored today. Now he is getting ready for another class of the same level as he has just been through.  

Family structures and roles Essay

We use the word role today meaning a function or part played in life. As a member of a family or a work situation the roles we have in life depend on the situation we are in at the time. I myself am a wife, a mother, a daughter, a care assistant, a student and a friend. As you can see I have many different roles in my everyday living. The main role in my life will be the role within my family unit. This project will look at the roles of members in a family unit and how this has changed over the last 25-50 years. Nuclear family The roles within the nuclear family used to be the father being the main provider and working long hours to support his family and the mother looked after the children and the home. Because men were the ones with the money they took charge inside the family. This was considered the norm but over time changes came about when the wife began to reject the housewife role and demanded a greater say in decision making in the home. They wanted to be considered equal to their husbands. Women began insisting men carried out tasks around the home. This lead to husbands spending leisure time with family instead of spending time with his male companions down the pub after work, it resulted in close emotional bonds with his wife and children, he began to help with household tasks and childcare. With the introduction of the contraceptive pill in the 1960’s women were able to limit the number of children they had and gave them the freedom to obtain paid employment. A marriage now became a partnership with the husband and wife now sharing the routine of everyday life. Attitudes changed in society, it was now considered normal for husbands and wives to both work and share household tasks and childcare. In today’s society it is not unusual for the wife to be the main provider and the husband stay at home to keep house and look after the children. The term househusband is now well known. There are three different roles: Joint roles; where couples work together in the house or garden. Complementary roles: where couples helped one another such as one may paint the other may paper. Segregated roles; where couples have separate jobs to do, e.g. the wife does the ironing the husband mows the lawn. Extended family The role of members in the extended family did not vary greatly from those of the nuclear family. The daughter settled in close proximity to her mother and they saw each other on a daily basis. This gave the grandmother the opportunity of a supporting role in the upbringing and education of the child(ren). They were also if able to give financial support. The extended family members usually took on the role of caring for an elderly parent. A person is now expected to live well into their 70th or 80th year, this means there has been a huge growth in the number of three-generation families. Nursing homes and residential homes are now on the increase in today’s society and the role of looking after a parent in their old age within the family unit has now decreased. The roles within the extended family have varied greatly due to women and men now having equal opportunities and both going out to work. The care of the child while the parents work is more often than not taken on by a family member e.g. grandparent aunt or uncle. Whilst the local extended family takes on the role of childcare it is both the parents responsibility to take on the role of providing for their family. Reconstituted family Reconstituted families became more popular after the divorce reform act of 1971 was introduced making it easier to obtain divorce. The roles within the reconstituted families can be very difficult due to stepparents taking on their new role and children rebelling against the discipline given out by a stepparent. In reconstituted families both the man and the woman take on the role of the living expenses and food costs of the home. Joint financing of the stepchildren’s expenses is less common, it is much more common for the mother to receive financial help from the stepfather in order for her children’s expenses. Both parents along with household tasks usually take on the role of childcare and educator. Members of the extended reconstituted family also take on the childcare role when both parents work. One parent family The role of the single parent can be a difficult one, as they have to take on the role of mother, father, carer, provider and educator. This itself can become a huge task especially if there is no immediate family around to offer support Single parents have become more popular in today’s society for a variety of reasons. There are more women than men who take on the role of the single parent but it is probably a harder role for a man to cope with. A mans role in life is seen to be masculine; they define themselves by their work role. Single fatherhood requires men to look at their priorities around work and family and so their role in life now becomes the sole provider for his child(ren). Partnership arrangements There are many types of families in today’s society including gay and lesbian couples. The public’s opinion of these couples has changed enormously over the last few years. The role of carer and educator within this type of family usually falls on both individuals. Benefit such as income support or working families tax credit is paid to the natural parent of the child and does not include the other persons income, as the law does not recognise them as a couple, therefore the main provider will probably be the natural parent but not in all cases. Cultural influences There are many people from many cultures settled in Britain today. Being of a different cultural background has resulted in prejudice. Prejudice still exists today, and although there is discrimination out there, it is against the law and much harder to prove. Because of so many cultures in our lives we have seen many changes in society, namely the opening of shops, supermarkets, take-away food shops and restaurants. Many years ago it was unusual for families to eat outside their home or the home of a family member, today take-away food and eating out is a part of every day life. We now have new tastes ranging from Chinese to Indian and Italian to Mexican. Why roles have changed Many changes have taken place over the years especially the roles within family life. The introduction of the pill made it easier for women to take control of their bodies resulting in fewer children being born. The influences that have changed the way we think the way we see the family and the roles we play are due to the media, television newspapers and magazines. Legislation has given us equal pay, equal opportunities for all and equal rights regardless of our class gender or culture. Women can now own or rent their own home and are considered equal owners in the case of divorce. Women can now take out loans or credit agreements without their husband or fathers consent. Health care has improved considerably over the years and screenings for women’s problems has been forced into action. Overall life has become better for women today. They now have the same rights as men and are considered an important part of our society today.

Immigrant Chronicle Essay Example

Immigrant Chronicle Essay Example Immigrant Chronicle Essay Immigrant Chronicle Essay Write a paragraph about ‘St Patrick’s College’ and belonging say what it says about belonging and the language feature used The poem ‘St Patrick’s College’ by Peter Skrzynecki describes his school years at the Catholic college in Edgar Street Strathfield. This is an important part of Peter Skrzynecki’s life, a time when he was trying to fit in, to assimilate, to belong. Double use of the possessive in the first line ‘impressed by the uniforms of her employer’s sons mother enrolled me at St Pat’s’ indicates his mother’s hopes and ambitions. As an immigrant mother she is trying to ensure her only child’s future inclusion in social hierarchy of their new country. However, this sentence also suggests that these are perhaps not the best ways of deciding on a school which would be suitable for Peter trying to fit in. Then in the lines ‘our lady watched/with outstretched arms/her face overshadowed by clouds’, the poet conveys that he didn’t feel included. Our lady’ represents the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, and symbolizes the warmth and protection offered by all mothers as they embrace their children, However here, the negative connotation of ‘overshadowed by clouds’ reinforces his feelings of not really belonging at this religious institution. This metaphor is reinforced in the last stanza where the lady still watches over him ‘unchanged by eight years of weather’. Even after 8 years of attendance, the poet still does not really belong. Then the use of colloquial language and connotation of shared friendship ‘played chasings up and down the station’s ten ramps’ shows Peter’s young and that he is fitting into some extent but he is still unsure about where he belongs. He doesn’t feel he is part of the school. Repetition of eight years, metaphor and emotive language ‘for eight years I carried the blue, black and gold/I’d been privileged to wear’ are used in the forth stanza to emphasizes the length of time he spent at the school and the benefits he gained there. Even though he did the same things as any student does at school and did fit into St Patrick’s in some ways, he is still unsure about where he belongs. In the last stanza, negative words and tone of uncertainty are used to show Peter Skrzynecki’s time at St Patrick’s is at an end and there are some things he still can’t do, but he will never have chance to finish those things just like he will never completely belong.